Computer Networks 2023 Previous Year Paper Solved

Q.1 (A) What is the use of topologies in networking?

(B) What do you understand by Line Configuration?

• In a point-to-point line configuration, communication occurs directly between two devices.
• Examples of point-to-point configurations include a simple connection between two computers or a point-to-point link in a wide-area network (WAN).

• In a multipoint line configuration, multiple devices share the same communication channel.
• This setup allows several devices to communicate with one another over a common line.
• An example of a multipoint configuration is a bus topology.

(C) Explain Attenuation and Distortion.

• Signal Loss: As a signal travels over a medium such as a copper wire, , or through the air, it gradually loses its strength.
• Distance Dependency: Attenuation tends to increase with the distance the signal travels.

• Causes of Distortion: Distortion can be caused by factors such as interference from other signals, reflections, and variations in the transmission medium's characteristics.

(D) How is Synchronous TDM different from Asynchronous TDM?

• Timing Mechanism: Relies on a centralized clock for synchronization.
• Slot Allocation: Time slots are fixed and allocated in a predetermined manner.
• Efficiency: Generally more efficient as each device has a dedicated time slot, minimizing idle time.
• Synchronization Overhead: Requires precise synchronization among all devices.
• Complexity: Synchronous can be more complex due to the need for synchronized timing, especially in large networks.

• Timing Mechanism: Does not depend on a centralized clock.
• Slot Allocation: Time slots may vary dynamically based on data availability.
• Efficiency: May have idle slots, potentially leading to lower efficiency compared to synchronous TDM.
• Synchronization Overhead: Less stringent synchronization requirements.
• Complexity: Generally simpler due to the flexibility in slot assignment and reduced synchronization demands.

(E) Diff btw packet switching & circuit switching.

• Packet Switching: In packet switching, data is divided into packets, and each packet is transmitted independently.
• There is no need to establish a dedicated connection before sending data.
• Circuit Switching: Circuit switching involves establishing a dedicated communication path between the sender and receiver before data transmission.
• This path remains reserved for the entire duration of the communication, ensuring a continuous link.

• Packet Switching: Resources are shared among multiple users. The network dynamically allocates resources based on demand.
• Circuit Switching: Resources are reserved exclusively for the established connection.

• Packet Switching: The Internet is a primary example of a packet-switched network.
• Circuit Switching: Traditional telephone networks often use circuit switching.

• Packet Switching: Offers flexibility as it can adapt to varying data transmission rates and network conditions.
• Circuit Switching: Less flexible, as resources are dedicated for the entire communication session.

• Packet Switching: Highly scalable, making it suitable for large networks with a variable number of users and diverse communication patterns.
• Circuit Switching: Less scalable, as the dedicated resources must be reserved for each connection.

(F) How is IPV4 different from IPV6?

• IPv4: Uses 32-bit addresses, limiting the number of unique addresses to approximately 4.3 billion.
• IPv6: Employs 128-bit addresses, vastly expanding the address space to accommodate an exponentially larger number of unique addresses.

• IPv4: Represented in dotted-decimal format (e.g., 192.168.0.1).
• IPv6: Represented in hexadecimal format separated by colons (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:000..).

• IPv4: Typically configured manually or through DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol).
• IPv6: Supports stateless autoconfiguration, allowing devices to generate their addresses based on network prefixes and interface identifiers.

• IPv4: Faces challenges with address exhaustion due to the limited address space.
• IPv6: Addresses the issue of address exhaustion by providing an astronomically larger address space.

• IPv4: Has a relatively complex header with various fields, including checksum, header length, and options.
• IPv6: Simplifies the header structure, removing certain fields like checksum and incorporating extension headers.

(G) What is the difference between single-bit error & burst error?

• Single Bit Error: Involves the alteration of a single binary digit (bit) within a data unit during transmission.
• Burst Error: This occurs when two or more bits nearby within a data unit are corrupted during transmission as a result of noise or interference.

• Single Bit Error: Typically has a limited impact on the transmitted data, affecting only the value of the individual bit.
• Burst Error: can have a more significant impact as it may corrupt multiple bits in a sequence.

• Single Bit Error: Often caused by random electrical or electromagnetic interference, signal attenuation, etc.
• Burst Error: Arises from concentrated interference or noise affecting consecutive bits.

• Single Bit Error: Relatively easier to detect and correct using error detection and correction techniques such as parity checks or cyclic redundancy checks (CRC).
• Burst Error: This may be more challenging to detect and correct, specialized error correction codes.

• Single Bit Error: Changing a '0' to '1' or vice versa in a transmitted binary sequence.
• Burst Error: Multiple consecutive bits being flipped due to interference, leading to a sequence of errors in the received data.

UNIT-I

Q-2 (A) Describe the components of Data Communication along with a diagram.

• The information or data that is to be communicated from the source to the destination.
• Example: In an email communication, the message is the actual content of the email, including text, images, or attachments.

• The device or entity that originates and initiates the communication process.
• Example: In a smartphone sending a text message, the smartphone serves as the sender.

• The device or entity that receives the communicated message.
• Example: The recipient's smartphone in the text message example serves as the receiver.

• The physical or logical pathway through which data travels from the sender to the receiver.
• Example: In a phone call, the airwaves serve as the transmission medium for voice communication.

• A set of rules and conventions that govern the format and timing of data transmission between sender and receiver.
• Example: The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) ensures reliable and ordered delivery of data in internet communication.

• The encoder converts the message into a suitable format for transmission, while the decoder interprets the received data back into the original message.
• Example: In a video call, the camera on the sender's device encodes the video, and the receiver's device decodes it to display the video.

Q- 2 (B) Explain the OSI model. Write the functions and protocols of each layer.

• Function: Deals with the physical connection between devices, addressing issues like transmission medium, signal encoding, and modulation.
• Protocols: Ethernet, USB, HDMI.

• Function: Responsible for framing data into frames, error detection, and control of access to the physical medium.
• Protocols: Ethernet (MAC), PPP, HDLC.

• Function: Manages logical addressing, routing, and forwarding of data packets between devices across different networks.
• Protocols: IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP, OSPF.

• Function: Ensures reliable end-to-end communication, error detection, and flow control.
• Protocols: TCP, UDP, SCTP.

• Function: Establishes, maintains, and terminates sessions or connections between applications.
• Protocols: NetBIOS, PPTP, RPC.

• Function: Translates data between the application layer and the lower layers, ensuring compatibility and providing data encryption and compression.
• Protocols: SSL/TLS, JPEG, ASCII.

• Function: Provides network services directly to end-users or applications, handling high-level protocols.
• Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP.

Q-3 (A) Define networking and its goals.

• Objective: Facilitate the sharing of hardware resources (e.g., printers, storage) and software resources (e.g., applications) among connected devices.
• Importance: Enhances efficiency by optimizing resource utilization and reducing redundancy.

• Objective: Ensure reliable and efficient communication between devices, minimizing errors, delays, and data loss.
• Importance: Supports dependable and timely exchange of information critical for various applications and services.

• Objective: Design networks to accommodate growth in the number of connected devices and increasing data traffic.
• Importance: Enables networks to adapt to changing demands and expanding user requirements.

• Objective: Implement measures to protect data integrity, confidentiality, and accessibility, safeguarding against unauthorized access and malicious activities.
• Importance: Ensures the privacy and integrity of sensitive information in the network.

• Objective: Create networks that can easily adapt to changes in technology, user requirements, and network topology.
• Importance: Allows for the incorporation of new devices, services, and technologies without significant disruptions.

Q-3 (B) Explain Transmission Impairment in detail.

• Attenuation is the gradual loss of signal strength as it travels through a medium.
• It is influenced by the distance the signal travels and the characteristics of the transmission medium.
• Example: In a long electrical cable, the signal may weaken, causing the receiving end to receive a less intense version of the original signal.

• Distortion involves changes in the quality of the signal due to factors like interference, noise, or variations in the transmission medium.
• Example: Cross-talk between adjacent copper cables in a telephone line may introduce distortion, causing one conversation to be faintly heard in another.

• Noise is unwanted and random signals that interfere with the intended signal, introducing errors and reducing the signal-to-noise ratio.
• Example: In wireless communication, radio frequency interference from other electronic devices can introduce noise.

• Delay refers to the time it takes for a signal to travel from the sender to the receiver.
• Excessive delay can impact real-time applications.
• Example: In video conferencing, long delays can lead to out-of-sync audio and video, affecting the natural flow of communication.

• Jitter is the variation in the arrival time of signal components, causing irregularities in the signal's timing.
• Example: In streaming services, network jitter can lead to inconsistent packet arrival times, resulting in buffering or poor video quality.

• Interference occurs when external signals disrupt the intended communication, causing errors or complete signal loss.
• Example: Electronic devices emitting electromagnetic interference may disrupt Wi-Fi signals, leading to a reduction in data transmission quality.

• Echo is the reflection of a portion of the transmitted signal back to the sender, causing confusion and impairing voice communication.
• Example: In a phone call, if an echo occurs, the speaker hears their own words delayed, making the conversation challenging.

UNIT-II

Q -4 (A) What do you understand by Multiplexing? Describe WDM & FDM.

• Multiplexing is a technique in data communication that allows multiple signals to share a common communication medium simultaneously.
• This optimizes the use of available resources and enhances the efficiency of data transmission.

• Wavelength Division Multiplexing is a multiplexing technique commonly used in fiber-optic communication.
• It involves simultaneously transmitting multiple optical signals, each at a unique wavelength (or color), over a single optical fiber.
• This allows for an increase in the data-carrying capacity of the fiber.

• Frequency Division Multiplexing involves dividing the available frequency bandwidth of a communication channel into smaller sub-channels, each allocated to a different signal.
• This allows multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously without interfering with each other.
• Examples: FDM is commonly used in analog audio broadcasting, where different radio stations are assigned specific frequency bands.

Q-4 (B) Explain the Hamming Code with the help of an example.

• Hamming Code is an error-detecting and error-correcting code method widely used in digital communication to ensure the integrity of transmitted data.
• It adds redundant bits to the original data to detect and correct errors that may occur during transmission.
• Example: Let's consider a 4-bit data word, and we want to apply Hamming Code to detect and correct errors.
• The original data is represented as ABCD, and we'll add parity bits P1, P2, and P3 to create the Hamming Code.

• Adding Parity Bits:
• P1: Checks parity for bits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. (Parity bit for even number of 1s.)
• P2: Checks parity for bits 2, 3, 6, 7. (Parity bit for bits 2, 3, 6, 7.)
• P3: Checks parity for bits 4, 5, 6, 7. (Parity bit for bits 4, 5, 6, 7.)
• So, our data with parity bits becomes P1P2ABP3CD.

• The data with parity bits is transmitted: P1P2ABP3CD.

• Let's say during transmission, bit A gets flipped due to an error.
• The received data becomes P1P2A'B'P3CD.

• Calculate the parity bits at the receiver.
• P1: Checks parity for bits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. (Parity bit for even number of 1s.)
• P2': Checks parity for bits 2, 3, 6, 7. (Parity bit for bits 2, 3, 6, 7.)
• P3': Checks parity for bits 4, 5, 6, 7. (Parity bit for bits 4, 5, 6, 7.)
• If any calculated parity bit doesn't match the received parity bit, an error is detected. In our case, P1 doesn't match P1, indicating an error.

• The position of the incorrect bit corresponds to the faulty parity bit (P1). Flip the bit to correct the error.
• Our corrected data becomes P1P2A'B'P3CD, where A' is the corrected bit.

Q-5 (A) Define Bit-Stuffing. How it is different from character stuffing?

• Bit-stuffing is a technique used in data communication to avoid ambiguity or uncertainty caused by a specific bit pattern that might resemble a control character in the transmitted data.
• It involves inserting an extra bit into the data stream to distinguish between the actual data bits and the control bits.

• Bit-Stuffing: Involves the insertion of a bit into the data stream.
• Character Stuffing: Involves the insertion of entire characters (byte) into the data stream.

• Bit-Stuffing: Operates at the bit level, allowing for more precise control over the data stream.
• Character Stuffing: Operates at the character (byte) level, treating each character as a single entity.

• Bit-Stuffing Example: If there are five consecutive '1' bits in the data, bit-stuffing might insert a '0' after the fifth '1' to avoid confusion with the delimiter pattern.
• Character Stuffing Example: In character stuffing, an entire character (e.g., a special character or sequence) is inserted into the data stream to distinguish between data and control information.

• Bit-Stuffing: Commonly used in protocols like High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) for framing and error detection.
• Character Stuffing: Historically used in protocols like ASCII for asynchronous communication where the start and stop bits are added to each character.

• Bit-Stuffing: This can be more efficient in terms of bandwidth utilization.
• Character Stuffing: This may introduce more overhead, especially in situations where characters are relatively large compared to individual bits.

Q-5 (B) Explain any three error detection methods.

• Principle: Parity check is a simple error detection method that involves adding an extra bit, called the parity bit, to a data stream.
• The parity bit is chosen to make the total number of 1s in the data (including the parity bit) either even (even parity) or odd (odd parity).
• Example: In even parity, if the data is 1011001, the parity bit would be 0 (making the total number of 1s even), resulting in the transmitted sequence 10110010.

• CRC is a more sophisticated error detection method commonly used in network communication.
• It involves appending a polynomial code to the data, and the receiver performs polynomial division to check for errors.
• If the received remainder is not zero, an error is detected.
• Example: Consider the data 1101101 and the polynomial divisor 1011. The CRC bits are calculated by dividing the data by the polynomial, and the remainder (011) is appended to the data for transmission.

• Checksum is a simple error detection method where a sum or a similar operation is performed on blocks of data, and the result is included in the transmitted message.
• The receiver performs the same operation on the received data and checks if the calculated checksum matches the transmitted checksum.

UNIT -III

Q-6 (A) What do you understand by Routing? Differentiate between adaptive and non-adaptive routing.

• Routing is a fundamental process in computer networks where data is directed from its source to its destination through a network of interconnected devices.
• It involves determining the optimal path or route for data packets to reach their destination efficiently.

• Adaptive routing, also known as dynamic routing, involves making routing decisions based on real-time information about the network's current conditions.
• The routing decisions can change dynamically in response to varying network states.

• Non-adaptive routing, also known as static routing, relies on predetermined or fixed routing paths that do not change regardless of the current network conditions.
• The routing decisions remain constant until manually modified.

• Adaptive Routing: Responds dynamically to changes in network conditions, adapting routing paths as needed.
• Non-Adaptive Routing: Routing paths remain constant and do not adapt to changes without manual intervention.

• Adaptive Routing: Typically more complex due to the need for algorithms and continuous monitoring of network conditions.
• Non-Adaptive Routing: More straightforward, as routing paths are predetermined and static.

• Adaptive Routing: Well-suited for large and dynamic networks where conditions may change frequently.
• Non-Adaptive Routing: Suitable for smaller, stable networks with predictable conditions.

• Adaptive Routing: This may introduce additional overhead due to continuous monitoring and dynamic decision-making.
• Non-Adaptive Routing: Generally lower overhead as routing paths are predefined and do not change frequently.

• Adaptive Routing: Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).
• Non-Adaptive Routing: Static routes configured manually in a router.

Q-6 (B) Describe repeater, router, switch, hub, bridge & gateway.

• Function: A repeater is a network device that regenerates or amplifies signals to extend the reach of a network.
• It operates at the physical layer of the OSI model.
• Example: In a large office building, a repeater may be used to boost the strength of a Wi-Fi signal to cover a wider area.

• Function: A router is a networking device that connects different networks and directs data traffic between them.
• It operates at the network layer of the OSI model, making routing decisions based on IP addresses.
• Example: In a home network, a router connects the local devices to the internet and manages the flow of data between the home network and the internet.

• Function: A switch is a network device that operates at the data link layer of the OSI model.
• It uses MAC addresses to forward data frames within a local network, creating a more efficient and intelligent way to manage network traffic compared to hubs.
• Example: In an office network, a switch is used to interconnect computers and devices, allowing them to communicate with each other.

• Function: A hub is a basic networking device that operates at the physical layer of the OSI model.
• It simply receives data from one device and broadcasts it to all other devices connected to the hub, creating a shared communication medium.
• Example: In a small home network, a hub may be used to connect multiple computers, but it lacks the intelligence and efficiency of a switch.

• Function: A bridge is a device that operates at the data link layer of the OSI model and connects two similar network segments, filtering and forwarding data based on MAC addresses.
• It helps reduce traffic and enhance network performance.
• Example: In a large enterprise network, a bridge might connect two separate LANs on different floors of a building.

• Function: A gateway is a device that connects different networks with different communication protocols.
• It acts as a translator, enabling communication between networks that use different standards.
• Example: An email gateway might facilitate communication between an internal corporate email system (using one protocol) and an external email service (using a different protocol).

Q-7 (A) Differentiate between Distance Vector Routing & Link State Routing

Distance Vector Routing vs. Link State Routing:

• Distance Vector Routing: Periodically sends the entire routing table to its neighboring routers, containing information about the distance (cost) to each destination.
• Link State Routing: Periodically floods the network with information about the state of its links, creating a detailed database of the entire network topology.

• Distance Vector Routing: Maintains a table that includes the distance and next-hop information for each destination, based on the information received from neighbors.
• Link State Routing: Constructs a complete map of the network's topology, allowing routers to calculate the shortest path to each destination independently.

• Distance Vector Routing: Makes routing decisions based on the information received from neighbors, without knowledge of the overall network topology.
• Link State Routing: Makes routing decisions by considering the complete and up-to-date network topology, enabling more accurate path calculations.

• Distance Vector Routing: May experience longer convergence times, especially in larger networks, as routers need time to propagate and update routing tables.
• Link State Routing: Generally has faster convergence times, as routers have immediate knowledge of the entire network and can quickly adapt to changes.

• Distance Vector Routing: Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is an example of a distance vector routing protocol.
• Link State Routing: Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an example of a link-state routing protocol.

Q-7 (B) What is subnetting? Describe Unicast Routing Protocols.

• Subnetting is a process that involves dividing a larger IP network into smaller, more manageable sub-networks or subnets.
• It provides several benefits, including efficient address space utilization, improved network performance, and enhanced security.

• Subnetting allows organizations to break down a large IP network into smaller subnets, preventing the wastage of IP addresses and optimizing address space.

• Smaller subnets make it easier to manage and troubleshoot network issues, as administrators can focus on specific subnets rather than dealing with a large, flat network.

• Subnetting helps limit the scope of broadcast domains. Broadcast traffic is confined to a specific subnet, preventing it from unnecessarily traversing the entire network.

• Security can be improved by segmenting the network into subnets. Access control lists (ACLs) can be applied at the subnet level, enhancing network security.

• Subnetting facilitates network growth and scalability by allowing the addition of new subnets without affecting the overall network structure.

• Unicast routing protocols are used to determine the best path for routing data from a single source to a single destination in a network.
• These protocols enable routers to make forwarding decisions based on destination addresses.

• Unicast routing protocols exchange routing information between routers to build and maintain a routing table, which contains information about the network's topology.

• Routers use unicast routing protocols to determine the most efficient path to reach a specific destination. The path selection is based on metrics such as hop count, bandwidth, or delay.

• Routing Information Protocol (RIP): RIP is a distance-vector routing protocol that uses hop count as a metric to determine the best path.
• Open Shortest Path First (OSPF): OSPF is a link-state routing protocol that calculates the shortest path based on the network's complete topology.

• Unicast routing protocols can be dynamic, meaning they automatically adapt to changes in the network topology by updating routing tables based on the latest information.

UNIT -IV

Q-8 (A) Compare the TCP header with the UDP header.

• TCP Header: TCP has a variable-length header ranging from 20 to 60 bytes, depending on the options present.
• UDP Header: UDP has a fixed-length header of 8 bytes.

• TCP Header: Supports connection-oriented communication with features like a three-way handshake for connection establishment.
• UDP Header: Connectionless protocol, lacking features for connection establishment or termination.

• TCP Header: Provides reliable, connection-oriented communication with features such as acknowledgment, retransmission, and flow control.
• UDP Header: This does not provide reliability mechanisms, making it a simple, connectionless protocol.

• TCP Header: Implements flow control to manage the rate of data transfer between sender and receiver.
• UDP Header: This does not implement flow control, allowing data to be sent without pacing based on the receiver's ability to process.

• TCP Header: Utilizes acknowledgment (ACK) and sequence numbers to ensure reliable delivery of data.
• UDP Header: Does not provide acknowledgment or sequence numbers, relying on higher-layer protocols or applications to handle reliability.

Q.8 (B) Explain Connection Management

• When two devices or applications intend to communicate, a connection must be established.
• This involves a series of steps to set up the necessary parameters and agree on the communication terms.
• A common example is the three-way handshake in the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
• In TCP, the initiating device sends a synchronization (SYN) request, the receiving device acknowledges it (ACK), and a final acknowledgment is sent back by the initiator.

• Once a connection is established, data can be exchanged between the communicating entities.
• The management of this data flow includes ensuring proper synchronization and handling potential errors.

• Connection management incorporates mechanisms to control the flow of data between the sender and the receiver.
• This is essential to prevent overwhelming the receiving entity.

• Effective connection management involves addressing errors that may occur during data transmission.
• Errors can result from factors like network congestion, hardware failures, or packet corruption.
• Protocols such as TCP implement error detection and correction mechanisms.

• Once the data exchange is complete, or if either party wishes to end the communication, a proper connection termination process is initiated.
• In TCP, for example, a device sends a finish (FIN) signal, and the other device acknowledges it.
• This process ensures the orderly release of resources associated with the connection.

• Consider a scenario where a user opens a web browser and requests a webpage.
• The browser initiates a connection to the web server using HTTP. The connection is established through a series of handshake messages (SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK).
• Once the connection is established, the browser sends an HTTP request for the desired webpage.
• The server responds with the webpage data, which is then displayed on the user's browser.
• Subsequently, the connection is terminated, freeing up resources.

Q-9 (A) Discuss the design issue of the session layer.

• Issue: The session layer must address how sessions are initiated, managed, and terminated between communicating entities.
• Deciding when to establish and close sessions is a critical design consideration.
• Design Consideration: Define protocols or mechanisms for session establishment, including negotiation of session parameters, and orderly termination to release resources.

• Issue: Managing the dialog or communication between two entities involves deciding when one entity can send data and when it should wait for a response.
• This includes full-duplex or half-duplex communication and synchronization between entities.
• Design Consideration: Develop dialog control mechanisms to coordinate the exchange of data between entities, ensuring a seamless and organized communication flow.

• Issue: The session layer needs to address synchronization issues, ensuring that both ends of the communication are aligned in terms of the data exchange.
• Out-of-sync scenarios can lead to data misinterpretation.
• Design Consideration: Implement synchronization mechanisms such as checkpoints or markers to maintain alignment between communicating entities.

• Issue: Ensuring the integrity of data during its transmission is crucial.
• The session layer must address error detection, correction, and prevention mechanisms to guarantee reliable data exchange.
• Design Consideration: Implement error checking and correction techniques to maintain data integrity, such as checksums or cyclic redundancy checks.

• Issue: Communicating entities may have different preferences.
• The session layer should provide a mechanism for negotiating the services and parameters of the communication session.
• Design Consideration: Develop protocols or methods for entities to negotiate and agree upon session parameters, ensuring compatibility and optimal communication.

Q-9 (B) Describe any five protocols present on the application layer.

• Functionality: HTTP is a protocol for transferring hypermedia documents on the World Wide Web.
• It facilitates the communication between web clients (browsers) and servers, allowing the retrieval and display of web pages.
• HTTP operates over the TCP/IP protocol.

• Functionality: FTP is used for transferring files between a client and a server on a network.
• It enables users to upload files from their local machines to a remote server or download files from a server to their local machines.
• FTP operates over the TCP/IP protocol.

• SMTP is a protocol for sending and receiving email messages.
• It is used to transmit emails between email clients and servers. SMTP defines how email clients communicate with the email servers to send messages. It operates over the TCP/IP protocol.

• Functionality: POP is a protocol used by email clients to retrieve emails from a mail server.
• It allows users to download emails from the server to their local devices, making them accessible even when offline.
• POP operates over the TCP/IP protocol.

• Functionality: IMAP is another protocol for accessing and managing email messages.
• It allows users to view and manipulate emails directly on the email server without downloading them to their local devices.
• IMAP operates over the TCP/IP protocol.

• Functionality: SNMP is a protocol used for network management and monitoring.
• It allows network administrators to manage and monitor network devices such as routers, switches, and servers.
• SNMP operates over the UDP or TCP/IP protocol.

• Functionality: DNS is a protocol used for translating human-readable domain names into IP addresses.
• It plays a crucial role in enabling users to access websites using domain names instead of numerical IP addresses.
• DNS operates over the TCP/IP protocol.